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The SQL SELECT statement queries data from tables in the database. The statement begins with the SELECT keyword. The basic SELECT statement has 3 clauses:	* SELECT	* FROM	* WHERE The SELECT clause specifies the table columns that are retrieved. The FROM clause specifies the tables accessed. The WHERE clause specifies which table rows are used. The WHERE clause is optional; if missing, all table rows are used.For example,	  SELECT name FROM s WHERE city='Rome'This query accesses rows from the table - s. It then filters those rows where the city column contains Rome. Finally, the query retrieves the name column from each filtered row. Using the example s table, this query produces:	  name	  MarioA detailed description of the query actions:	* The FROM clause accesses the s table. Contents:			sno 	name 	city			S1 	Pierre 	Paris			S2 	John 	London			S3 	Mario 	Rome	* The WHERE clause filters the rows of the FROM table to use those whose city column contains Rome. This chooses a single row from s:			sno 	name 	city			S3 	Mario 	Rome	* The SELECT clause retrieves the name column from the rows filtered by the WHERE clause:			name			MarioThe remainder of this subsection examines the 3 major clauses of the SELECT statement, detailing their syntax and semantics:	* SELECT Clause -- specifies the table columns retrieved	* FROM Clause -- specifies the tables to be accessed	* WHERE Clause -- specifies which rows in the FROM tables to use Extended query capabilities are covered in the next sub-section.SELECT ClauseThe SELECT clause is mandatory. It specifies a list of columns to be retrieved from the tables in the FROM clause. It has the following general format:	  SELECT [ALL|DISTINCT] select-listselect-list is a list of column names separated by commas. The ALL and DISTINCT specifiers are optional. DISTINCT specifies that duplicate rows are discarded. A duplicate row is when each corresponding select-list column has the same value. The default is ALL, which retains duplicate rows.For example,	  SELECT descr, color FROM pThe column names in the select list can be qualified by the appropriate table name:	  SELECT p.descr, p.color FROM pA column in the select list can be renamed by following the column name with the new name. For example:	  SELECT name supplier, city location FROM sThis produces:	  supplier 	location	  Pierre 	Paris	  John 	London	  Mario 	RomeThe select list may also contain expressions. See Expressions.A special select list consisting of a single '*' requests all columns in all tables in the FROM clause. For example,	  SELECT * FROM sp	  sno 	pno 	qty	  S1 	P1 	NULL	  S2 	P1 	200	  S3 	P1 	1000	  S3 	P2 	200The * delimiter will retrieve just the columns of a single table when qualified by the table name. For example:	  SELECT sp.* FROM spThis produces the same result as the previous example.An unqualified * cannot be combined with other elements in the select list; it must be stand alone. However, a qualified * can be combined with other elements. For example,	  SELECT sp.*, city	  FROM sp, s	  WHERE sp.sno=s.sno	  sno 	pno 	qty 	city	  S1 	P1 	NULL 	Paris	  S2 	P1 	200 	London	  S3 	P1 	1000 	Rome	  S3 	P2 	200 	RomeNote: this is an example of a query joining 2 tables. See Joining Tables.FROM ClauseThe FROM clause always follows the SELECT clause. It lists the tables accessed by the query. For example,	  SELECT * FROM sWhen the From List contains multiple tables, commas separate the table names. For example,	  SELECT sp.*, city	  FROM sp, s	  WHERE sp.sno=s.snoWhen the From List has multiple tables, they must be joined together. See Joining Tables.Correlation NamesLike columns in the select list, tables in the from list can be renamed by following the table name with the new name. For example,	  SELECT supplier.name FROM s supplierThe new name is known as the correlation (or range) name for the table. Self joins require correlation names.WHERE ClauseThe WHERE clause is optional. When specified, it always follows the FROM clause. The WHERE clause filters rows from the FROM clause tables. Omitting the WHERE clause specifies that all rows are used.Following the WHERE keyword is a logical expression, also known as a predicate.The predicate evaluates to a SQL logical value -- true, false or unknown. The most basic predicate is a comparison:	  color = 'Red'This predicate returns:	* true -- if the color column contains the string value -- 'Red',	* false -- if the color column contains another string value (not 'Red'), or	* unknown -- if the color column contains null. Generally, a comparison expression compares the contents of a table column to a literal, as above. A comparison expression may also compare two columns to each other. Table joins use this type of comparison. See Joining Tables.The = (equals) comparison operator compares two values for equality. Additional comparison operators are:	* > -- greater than	* < -- less than	* >= -- greater than or equal to	* <= -- less than or equal to	* <> -- not equal to For example,	  SELECT * FROM sp WHERE qty >= 200	  sno 	pno 	qty	  S2 	P1 	200	  S3 	P1 	1000	  S3 	P2 	200Note: In the sp table, the qty column for one of the rows contains null. The comparison - qty >= 200, evaluates to unknown for this row. In the final result of a query, rows with a WHERE clause evaluating to unknown (or false) are eliminated (filtered out).Both operands of a comparison should be the same data type, however automatic conversions are performed between numeric, datetime and interval types. The CAST expression provides explicit type conversions; see Expressions.Extended ComparisonsIn addition to the basic comparisons described above, SQL supports extended comparison operators -- BETWEEN, IN, LIKE and IS NULL.	* BETWEEN Operator	  The BETWEEN operator implements a range comparison, that is, it tests whether a value is between two other values. BETWEEN comparisons have the following format:			value-1 [NOT] BETWEEN value-2 AND value-3	  This comparison tests if value-1 is greater than or equal to value-2 and less than or equal to value-3. It is equivalent to the following predicate:			value-1 >= value-2 AND value-1 <= value-3	  Or, if NOT is included:			NOT (value-1 >= value-2 AND value-1 <= value-3)	  For example,			SELECT *			FROM sp			WHERE qty BETWEEN 50 and 500			sno 	pno 	qty			S2 	P1 	200			S3 	P2 	200	* IN Operator	  The IN operator implements comparison to a list of values, that is, it tests whether a value matches any value in a list of values. IN comparisons have the following general format:			value-1 [NOT] IN ( value-2 [, value-3] ... )	  This comparison tests if value-1 matches value-2 or matches value-3, and so on. It is equivalent to the following logical predicate:			value-1 = value-2 [ OR value-1 = value-3 ] ...	  or if NOT is included:			NOT (value-1 = value-2 [ OR value-1 = value-3 ] ...)	  For example,			SELECT name FROM s WHERE city IN ('Rome','Paris')			name			Pierre			Mario	* LIKE Operator	  The LIKE operator implements a pattern match comparison, that is, it matches a string value against a pattern string containing wild-card characters.	  The wild-card characters for LIKE are percent -- '%' and underscore -- '_'. Underscore matches any single character. Percent matches zero or more characters.	  Examples,	  Match Value 	Pattern 	Result	  'abc' 	'_b_' 	True	  'ab' 	'_b_' 	False	  'abc' 	'%b%' 	True	  'ab' 	'%b%' 	True	  'abc' 	'a_' 	False	  'ab' 	'a_' 	True	  'abc' 	'a%_' 	True	  'ab' 	'a%_' 	True	  LIKE comparison has the following general format:			value-1 [NOT] LIKE value-2 [ESCAPE value-3]	  All values must be string (character). This comparison uses value-2 as a pattern to match value-1. The optional ESCAPE sub-clause specifies an escape character for the pattern, allowing the pattern to use '%' and '_' (and the escape character) for matching. The ESCAPE value must be a single character string. In the pattern, the ESCAPE character precedes any character to be escaped.	  For example, to match a string ending with '%', use:			x LIKE '%/%' ESCAPE '/'	  A more contrived example that escapes the escape character:			y LIKE '/%//%' ESCAPE '/'	  ... matches any string beginning with '%/'.	  The optional NOT reverses the result so that:			z NOT LIKE 'abc%'	  is equivalent to:			NOT z LIKE 'abc%'	* IS NULL Operator	  A database null in a table column has a special meaning -- the value of the column is not currently known (missing), however its value may be known at a later time. A database null may represent any value in the future, but the value is not available at this time. Since two null columns may eventually be assigned different values, one null can't be compared to another in the conventional way. The following syntax is illegal in SQL:			WHERE qty = NULL	  A special comparison operator -- IS NULL, tests a column for null. It has the following general format:			value-1 IS [NOT] NULL	  This comparison returns true if value-1 contains a null and false otherwise. The optional NOT reverses the result:			value-1 IS NOT NULL	  is equivalent to:			NOT value-1 IS NULL	  For example,			SELECT * FROM sp WHERE qty IS NULL			sno 	pno 	qty			S1 	P1 	NULLLogical OperatorsThe logical operators are AND, OR, NOT. They take logical expressions as operands and produce a logical result (True, False, Unknown). In logical expressions, parentheses are used for grouping.	* AND Operator	  The AND operator combines two logical operands. The operands are comparisons or logical expressions. It has the following general format:			predicate-1 AND predicate-2	  AND returns:		  o True -- if both operands evaluate to true		  o False -- if either operand evaluates to false		  o Unknown -- otherwise (one operand is true and the other is unknown or both are unknown) 	  Truth tables for AND:	  AND 	 T	   F	   U 	   T	   T	   F	   U 	   F	   F	   F	   F 	   U	   U	   F	   U 		  	  Input 1 	Input 2 	AND Result	  True 	True 	True	  True 	False 	False	  False 	False 	False	  False 	True 	False	  Unknown 	Unknown 	Unknown	  Unknown 	True 	Unknown	  Unknown 	False 	False	  True 	Unknown 	Unknown	  False 	Unknown 	False	  For example,			SELECT *			FROM sp			WHERE sno='S3' AND qty < 500			sno 	pno 	qty			S3 	P2 	200	* OR Operator	  The OR operator combines two logical operands. The operands are comparisons or logical expressions. It has the following general format:			predicate-1 OR predicate-2	  OR returns:		  o True -- if either operand evaluates to true		  o False -- if both operands evaluate to false		  o Unknown -- otherwise (one operand is false and the other is unknown or both are unknown) 	  Truth tables for OR:	  OR 	 T	   F	   U 	   T	   T	   T	   T 	   F	   T	   F	   U 	   U	   T	   U	   U 		  	  Input 1 	Input 2 	OR Result	  True 	True 	True	  True 	False 	True	  False 	False 	False	  False 	True 	True	  Unknown 	Unknown 	Unknown	  Unknown 	True 	True	  Unknown 	False 	Unknown	  True 	Unknown 	True	  False 	Unknown 	Unknown	  For example,			SELECT *			FROM s			WHERE sno='S3' OR city = 'London'			sno 	name 	city			S2 	John 	London			S3 	Mario 	Rome	  AND has a higher precedence than OR, so the following expression:			a OR b AND c	  is equivalent to:			a OR (b AND c)	* NOT Operator	  The NOT operator inverts the result of a comparison expression or a logical expression. It has the following general format:			NOT predicate-1	  Truth tables for NOT:	  NOT 	 	   T	   F 	   F	   T 	   U	   U 		  	  Input 	NOT Result	  True 	False	  False 	True	  Unknown 	Unknown	  Example query:			SELECT *			FROM sp			WHERE NOT sno = 'S3'			sno 	pno 	qty			S1 	P1 	NULL			S2 	P1 	200

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When you open QBasic, you see a blue screen where you can type your program. Let’s begin with the basic commands that are important in any program.

PRINT

Command PRINT displays text or numbers on the screen.

The program line looks like this:

PRINT “My name is Nick.”

Type the bolded text into QBasic and press F5 to run the program. On the screen you’ll see

My name is Nick.

Note: you must put the text in quotes, like this – “text”. The text in quotes is called a string.

If you put the PRINT alone, without any text, it will just put an empty line.

PRINT can also put numbers on the screen.

PRINT 57 will show the number 57. This command is useful for displaying the result of mathematical calculations. But for calculations, as well as for other things in the program, you need to use variables.


Variables

When you think, you keep words or numbers in your mind. This allows you to speak and to make calculations. Qbasic also needs to keep words or numbers in its memory. To do this, you use variables, pieces of Qbasic memory, which can keep information. A variable can be named with any letter, for example – a. It can also have a longer name, which can be almost any word. It is important to know that there are two main types of variables – that keep a number and that keep a word or a string of words.

* Numeric variables. It’s basically variables named with just a letter or a word. You tell this variable to keep a number like this:

a = 15

In other words, you assigned the value 15 to the variable a.

Qbasic will now know that the variable named a keeps the number 15. Now, if you type
PRINT a

and run the program, the computer will show this number on the screen.

* String variables can keep so called “strings”, which is basically any text or symbols (like % or Ł), which you put in the quotes “ ”. You can also put numbers in a string variable, but again, you must include them in quotes, and QBasic will think that those numbers are just a part of text. The string variables look like this – a$. The $ sign tells Qbasic that this variable contains text.

Example:

a$ = “It is nice to see you”
PRINT a$

On the screen you’ll see:
It is nice to see you



The PRINT command can print more that one string on the line. To do this, put the; sign between the variables. For example, you have two variables – name$, which contains name Rob, and age, which contains the number 34. Then, to print both name and age, you type:

PRINT “Name - ”; name$; “. Age - ”; age

As you can see, the name of a variable can be more than just one letter – it can be a short word which describes what sort of information does this variable keep.



What you see on the screen when you run the program will look like this:

Name – Rob. Age – 34

Or, you can type the program like that:
PRINT “Name - ”; name$
PRINT “Age - ”; age

The result is:

Name – Rob

Age - 34


INPUT

INPUT is a command that allows you or anybody else who runs the program to enter the information (text or number) when the program is already running. This command waits for the user to enter the information and then assigns this information to a variable. Since there are two types of variables, the INPUT command may look like this – INPUT a (for a number), or INPUT a$ (for a string).

Example (Type this program into Qbasic and run it by pressing F5)

PRINT “What is your name?”

INPUT name$

PRINT “Hi, ”; name$; “, nice to see you!”

PRINT “How old are you?”

INPUT age

PRINT “So you are ”; age; “ years old!”

END

Note: The END command tells Qbasic that the program ends here.

You don’t have to use PRINT to ask the user to enter the information. Instead, you can use

INPUT “Enter your name”; name$

and the result will be the same.



GOTO

Quite often you don’t want the program to run exactly in the order you put the lines, from the first to the last. Sometimes you want the program to jump to a particular line. For example, your program asks the user to guess a particular number:

~ ~ ~ ~ ‘some of the program here

INPUT “Guess the number”; n

~ ~ ~ ~ ‘some of the program there

The program then checks if the entered number is correct. But if the user gives the wrong answer, you may want to let him try again. So you use the command GOTO, which moves the program back to the line where the question is asked. But first, to show Qbasic where to go, you must “label” that line with a number:

1 INPUT “Guess the number”; n ‘this line is labelled with number 1

Then, when you want the program to return to that line, you type

GOTO 1


You can use GOTO to jump not only back but also forward, to any line you want. Always remember to label that line. You can have more than one label, but in that case they should be different.

QBasic was obviously created for us to have fun, play games, draw nice graphics and even make sounds.

But, as you might guess, nothing good comes without a bit of effort that has to be put in it. In the most QBasic programs a bit of math has to be done.

The math… Doh!

If you hate mathematics, don’t worry. Qbasic will do it all for you, you just need to know how to tell QBasic to do that.



Qbasic can perform the following mathematical operations:

Operator


What it does


Example


Result

+


Add


7 + 2


9

-


Subtract


7 – 2


5

*


Multiply


7 * 2


14

/


Divide


7 / 2


3.5



Examples:

1. a = 15 / 4 + 3

PRINT a

Result on the screen – 6



2. PRINT “Enter the first number”

INPUT a

PRINT “Enter the second number”

INPUT b

c = a + b

d = a * b

PRINT a; “+”; b; “=”; c

PRINT a; “*”; b; “=”; d

END

When you run this program it goes like this:

Computer: Enter the first number

You: 22

Computer: Enter the second number

You: 18

Computer: 22 + 18 = 40

22 * 18 = 396





Advanced operations:

Operator


What it does


Example


Result

\


divides and turns the result into an integer (the whole number)


7 \ 2


3

^


Raises a number to the power of another number


3 ^ 4

(means: 3 * 3 * 3 * 3)

2.5 ^ 3

(means:2.5 * 2.5 * 2.5)


243



15.625

SQR


Calculates the square root of a number


SQR(9)





SQR(16)





SQR(5)


3

(because: 3 ^ 2 = 9)



4

(because: 4 ^ 2 = 16)



2.236

MOD


Divides two numbers, and if the result is not an integer (for example - 3.25), finds out how much to subtract from the first number in order to get the integer result.


17 MOD 5


2

(because: 17 / 5 = 3.4

17 – 2 = 15

15 / 5 = 3)



The following program explains MOD. Type this program (except my comments) into Qbasic accurately and run it to see how MOD works.

1 CLS this command clears the screen, so it’s empty

INPUT "Enter the first number "; a

INPUT "Enter the second number "; b

IF b = 0 THEN checks if the second number is zero, because you can’t divide by zero

PRINT "the second number cannot be 0. Try again."

DO: LOOP WHILE INKEY$ = "" waits for you to press a key to continue

GOTO 1 then sends you back to line 1

END IF

CLS clear the screen again

c = a MOD b

d = a / b

e = a - c

f = e / b

PRINT a; "MOD"; b; "="; c

IF c = 0 THEN this checks if the result of a MOD b = 0, because it means that

the result of a / b is integer

PRINT "because"; a; "/"; b; "="; d; " - integer. Try again."

DO: LOOP WHILE INKEY$ = "" waits for you to press a key to continue

GOTO 1 then sends you back to the line 1

END IF

PRINT "because"; a; "/"; b; "="; d; " -not integer" The rest of the program executes if the

PRINT "but"; a; "-"; c; "="; e result of a / b is not integer

PRINT "and"; e; "/"; b; "="; f; " - integer"

END



This program may look very complicated for you, but don’t worry. Qbasic is a very easy language to learn and soon you’ll be having fun with it. I promise you!

From the previous chapters you have learned how to create a simple program with INPUT, GOTO and PRINT commands. In such a program, you are asked to type the information, QBasic processes it and then shows the result on the screen. In many programs (for example - games), the user has a choice of what to enter. In this case, QBasic has to check what the user has typed, and to react accordingly. This can be done with the IF...THEN command.
IF…THEN…ELSE

This command checks if an argument involving a variable is true. An argument may look like this: IF a = 15 THEN... If the argument is true (and a really equals to 15), then QBasic executes the command you put after the IF...THEN.

Example:

IF a = 15 THEN PRINT "OK"

If the argument is not true (if a is not equal to 15), QBasic bypasses this line and goes to the next. In some cases, you can use the ELSE command, which tells QBasic exactly what to do if the argument is not true.

IF a = 15 THEN PRINT "OK" ELSE PRINT "It's not 15"

This example means that if a equals to 15, the computer will show OK on the screen. But if a is not equal to 15, you'll see

It's not 15

To check the argument in IF…THEN command, you can use any of these mathematical operators:
operator meaning example
= Equal to IF a = 15 THEN…
<> Not equal to IF a <> 15 THEN…
< Less than IF a < 15 THEN…
<= Less or equal to IF a <= 15 THEN
> More than IF a > 15 THEN…
>= More or equal to IF a >= 15 THEN…

You can make QBasic to execute more than one command if the argument is true. To do this, put those commands after IF…THEN and divide them with : symbol.

IF a = 15 THEN PRINT "OK": GOTO 1

This example means that if a equals to 15, QBasic will first print OK and then will go to the line labelled 1. Here is an example of full program (a simple game):


1 CLS
score = 0
PRINT "How many days are there in a week?"
INPUT a
IF a = 7 THEN GOTO 2
PRINT "Wrong answer!"
PRINT "To try again – press 'y'."
INPUT a$
IF a$ = "y" THEN GOTO 1 ELSE END
2 score = 10
PRINT "It's the right answer!"
PRINT "Your score is now"; score; "!"
PRINT "Thanks for playing."
END

Let's analyse how this program works.
The first command, CLS, clears the screen so it's empty. Then QBasic makes the variable score to be equal to 0. Then computer shows the question "How many days there are in a week?" You type your answer (a number) and QBasic puts it in the variable a. Then QBasic checks if the number in this variable equals to 7 (because there are 7 days in a week). If it equals to 7, the program goes to the line 2, where the variable score gets equal to 10. You get the message "It's the right answer! Your score is now 10! Thanks for playing." and then the program ends. But if you gave the wrong answer (that is, the number in the variable a is not 7), QBasic bypasses the line with IF…THEN, and shows the message "Wrong answer! To try again – press 'y'." You can then press the key 'y' to try again or press any other key to end the game. The value of the key you pressed goes to the variable a$, which, if you remember, is a string variable (because of the $ symbol), and can contain only strings (letters, words or symbols). So the program checks if the key you pressed is really "y". If it is, the program takes you back to the line labelled 1, where the screen is cleared and the question is asked again. But if the key you pressed is some other key (not "y"), the program ends.

Sometimes you may want QBasic to execute more than two or three commands if the argument is true. Instead of putting all of them on one line, you can make an IF…THEN block:


IF a$ = "y" THEN
PRINT "OK, let's try again."
score = 0
GOTO 1
END IF

Note the END IF command at the end of this example. It tells QBasic that the commands, which should be executed if the argument is true, end here. This is important to separate the IF..THEN block from the rest of the program by putting END IF.
If you want QBasic to check more than one argument at once, use such words as AND and OR. For example – you want QBasic to execute commands in IF…THEN block if a is more than 12 but less than 50, somewhere in between. To program that, you can type:

IF a > 12 AND a < 50 THEN

Or, if you want commands to be executed if a equals either 6 or 12, you type:

IF a = 6 OR a = 12 THEN

Wow! So much said about that simple IF…THEN command in QBasic. It is indeed simple. IF you practise using this command in your programs, THEN you'll get the hang of it :-)

To make interesting and efficient programs, you can make QBasic to execute a part of a program more than once. This is called looping, when QBasic goes through a part of a program over and over again. This can be done with the GOTO command, but in QBasic there are some good ways to loop the program. One of them is FOR...NEXT command.

FOR...NEXT

This command allows you to execute a part of a program a certain number of times. It looks like this:

FOR i = 1 TO 4
PRINT "I am looping!"
NEXT i

This little stupid program will print on the screen:

I am looping!
I am looping!
I am looping!
I am looping!

The letter i can be anyother letter, c for example. It is actually a variable, which changes its value each time the program loops (in this example - from 1 to 3). So, if you make a program like this:

FOR a = 1 TO 5
PRINT "This is loop number"; a
NEXT a

this will print:

This is loop number 1
This is loop number 2
This is loop number 3
This is loop number 4
This is loop number 5

With FOR...NEXT you can use the STEP command, which tells QBasic how to count from one number to another. If you type:

FOR j = 0 TO 12 STEP 2
~ ~ ~
NEXT j

it will count by two:
0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12

FOR j = 0 TO 6 STEP 1.5
~ ~ ~
NEXT j

This will count:
0, 1.5, 3, 4.5, 6

You can also count backwards:

FOR d = 10 TO 1 STEP -1
~ ~ ~
NEXT d

When you want QBasic to count backwards, always put STEP -1 (or -whatever)!

DO...LOOP

Imagine that you have a program that works like an ordinary calculator: you enter numbers, QBasic calculates and shows the result, and the program ends. The program may be good, but one problem is that you have to run the program each time you want to calculate!
That’s where the handy DO...LOOP comes in. It’s a block of comands, where the program doesn’t have to loop a certain number of times, like in FOR...NEXT. It can loop indefinitely, while the condition is met (and when it’s not met, the loop stops), or until the condition is met (so, when it’s met, the loop stops). Condition is basically the same as an argument, for example f < 20

Here is an example:

DO
PRINT "Enter a number."
PRINT "When you want to quit, press 0."
INPUT n
r = n / 2
PRINT n; "/2 ="; r
LOOP WHILE n > 0
END

When you run this program, you can enter numbers and get the result as many times as you like. The program loops while numbers you enter are more than 0. Once you’ve entered 0, the program ends. The condition WHILE n > 0 is put by the LOOP command but you can stick it to the DO command, like that:

DO WHILE n > 0
~~~
LOOP

Or you can use the word UNTIL instead, and put it either by DO or LOOP, like that:

DO UNTIL n = 0
~~~
LOOP

All these examples have the same effect: the program loops while numbers you enter are more than 0 (or, you can say - until the number you’ve entered is 0). Then QBasic stops looping and goes to execute commands you put after the DO...LOOP block (if it’s END command, the program just ends).

So far you know that there are string variables (for holding text) and numeric variables (for holding numbers). But numbers can be very different, and in QBasic there are some different types of numeric variables:



Type of a variable


The number it can hold


Example of a number


Example of a variable

INTEGER


A whole number, from -32,767 to 32,767


5


a%

LONG INTEGER


A whole number, from more than -2 billion to more than 2 billion


92,345


a&

SINGLE PRESICION


A number with up to 6 digits after the decimal point.


3.725


a!

DOUBLE PRESICION


A number with up to 15 digits after the decimal point


3.1417583294


a#



As you see, those types of variables have a special symbol as part of their names:

%


INTEGER

&


The SINGLE type of variable is the most widely used in QBasic, and you don’t have to stick the ! symbol to it. If you put a variable without any symbol, QBasic will know that this is a SINGLE PRESICION variable.

LONG

!


SINGLE

#


DOUBLE


1

phew This Was A hard Work Well Hope U Like My Research Thats My 2yrs Works Hope Apricate Thanx..

This Is Java Script tutorial which is very neccessary for webdesgining so contrate and learn its nice and easy

 

Since the day Microsoft built support for JavaScript into Internet Explorer 3.0, Netscape's client-side language has become the de facto standard for enhancing web pages at the browser.

 

In this full-length excerpt from Practical JavaScript Programming, author Reaz Hoque explains the basics of client-side scripting. He also gives you some neat scripts that can enhance your web pages, making them impressively interactive. Important code snippets available in this article include a browser detection script, capable of offering tailored content based on broswer version or type. For instance, it's important (unless you like crashing visitors' computers) to only serve JavaScript 1.1 code to Netscape Navigator 3.0 or later.

 

By simply cutting and pasting the code examples below, you'll be well on your way to making your web site a more valuable, and more enjoyable, place to visit.

Your first JavaScript script

In any language, the programmer needs to find out how to output text into a document. In order to output text in JavaScript you must use write() or writeln(). Here's an example:

 

Writing text on a document

 

<HTML>

<HEAD>

<TITLE>Writing text on a document</TITLE>

</HEAD>

<BODY>

<script LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT">

<!-- Hiding the code

document.write("Welcome to Applications in JavaScript!");

// done hiding -->

</SCRIPT>

</BODY>

</HTML>

 

Test This Example

 

If you're familiar with JavaScript syntax, this script should be easy for you to understand. You will notice that we have included the code in between <script> and </SCRIPT> tags. We made sure the document object write is in lowercase as JavaScript is case sensitive.

 

Now, you might be wondering what the difference is between write and writeln. Well, while write just outputs a text, writeln outputs a line feed after the text output.

Date and time

You probably have seen many Web sites that incorporate a clock. Before JavaScript, you had to use CGI to have the current date and time on a page. Now, creating clocks and the date is easy and can make your site look cool. Using this example, you also can create custom greetings for your visitor, depending on the time of day. For example, you can have a message saying, "It's 12:00 a.m.. Go to bed!"

 

If you look at the Netscape's JavaScript documentation, you will know that there are two built-in functions in JavaScript that let you display date and time. The following example will display the current time and date in a text box with an option to stop the time.

 

 

 

<HTML>

<HEAD>

<TITLE>Showing date and time on a document</TITLE>

<script LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT">

<!--Hiding the code

var show_time=false;

var timerID=null;

 

function stop(){

if (show_time){

clearTimeout(timerID);

document.clock.date_time.value=" ";

}

show_time=false;

}

 

function start(form){

var today=new Date();

var display_value =" Time= " + today.getHours()

if(today.getMinutes() < 10){

display_value+=":0" + today.getMinutes();

}

else{

display_value+=":" + today.getMinutes();

}

if (today.getSeconds() < 10){

display_value+=":0" + today.getSeconds();

}

else{

display_value+=":" + today.getSeconds();

}

if(today.getHours()>=12){

display_value+=" P.M."

/* Here we have a variable called mygreeting where

you can store somthing like this:

mygreeting ="Good Morning!"; */

}

else{

display_value+=" A.M."

/* Now set mygreeting to:

mygreeting ="Good Afternoon!"; */

}

display_value += " Date= " + (today.getMonth()+1) + "/" +

today.getDate() + "/" + today.getYear();

document.clock.date_time.value=display_value;

timerID=setTimeout("start()",100);

show_time=true;

/* Here have an alert() method do the following:

alert(mygreeting); */

}

//done hiding-->

</SCRIPT>

</HEAD>

<BODY BGCOLOR=white Text=Red Link=Green onLoad=stop()>

<center>

<H2>Displaying Date and Time</H2>

<FORM name=clock>

<INPUT type="text" name="date_time" size=35 value=" "><br>

<INPUT type="button" name="show_now" value="Display" onClick=start()>

<INPUT type="button" name="clear_now" value=" Clear " onClick=stop()>

</center>

</FORM>

</BODY>

</HTML>

 

Test This Example

 

In this script, we have two functions (stop() and start()) for our two buttons Display and Clear. When the button Display is pressed, the start() function is called, and when the button Clear is pressed, the stop() function is called. Both of these functions are called using the onClick event handler.

 

Now the stop() function simply clears the setTimeout method that is used in the start() function. This function also clears the text box that displays the time and date. Finally, the function puts a false value to the Boolean variable show_time.

 

In start() function, a new instance of date using the statement new is created. Then a variable display_value was defined so that we can export the date and time value in the text box later. Remember that we are using the display_value as a string variable. Now we have to make sure that if the seconds and minutes are less than 10, they are both displayed as single digits. The if...else statement is used for that purpose.

 

In order to display a.m. or p.m., another if...else statement is used to check for a value more than or equal to 12. So, if the time value is more than 12, display_value would then hold "p.m.," otherwise it would hold "a.m." Lastly, the value of the day, month, and the year is added in the variable. Now it's time to display the data into the text box. This is done with the following code:

 

document.clock.date_time.value=display_value;

 

The above code takes the value of display_value and puts it in the property called value of the text box named date_time. The word document is used to insure that we are indicating the current document. Lastly, the variable timerID is set and show_time is set to true. Notice that timeID uses the setTimeOut() function with the parameters start() and 100. The reason why 100 is passed in is because the function start() is within one tenth of the second.[/code]

 

This Continues

 

Displaying page update information

Let's say you have some content you update frequently. Wouldn't it be nice to timestamp the most recent update on your pages? Well, here's how:

 

Displaying automatic page update information

 

<HTML>

<HEAD></HEAD>

<TITLE> Displaying Update Info</TITLE>

<BODY bgcolor=ffffff>

<script language="JavaScript">

<!--hide script from old browsers

document.write("<h2>This page has been updated: " +

document.lastModified + "</h2>");

// end hiding -->

</script>

</BODY>

</HTML>

 

Test This Example

 

All you needed to do here is use the lastModified property of the document. That's all!

Measuring users' time on a page

This script can tell the visitors of your homepage how much time they have spent on your page. To do that, first we create a function called person_in(). This function creates a new date instance which is called via the onLoad() event handler.

 

We then create another function called person_out() which is called via onUnload() event handler. This function also creates a new date instance. We then take the difference of the two date instances, divide the result by 1000, and round the result. The reason to divide the result by 1000 is to convert the visited time into seconds. The result is then displayed via an alert() method.

 

Measuring a user's time on a page

 

<HTML>

<HEAD>

<TITLE>Detecting User's Time on a Page</TITLE>

<script LANGUAGE="JavaScript">

function person_in() {

enter=new Date();

}

function person_out() {

exit=new Date();

time_dif=(exit.getTime()-enter.getTime())/1000;

time_dif=Math.round(time_dif);

alert ("You've only been here for: " + time_dif + " seconds!!")

}

</SCRIPT>

</HEAD>

<BODY bgcolor=ffffff onLoad='person_in()' onUnLoad='person_out()'>

</BODY>

</HTML>

 

 

Detecting a particular browser

Our next example shows you how to detect a particular browser. As mentioned earlier, this is useful because you could have a page that supports JavaScript for only Netscape 3.0, therefore, you don't want a visitor to visit the page without that browser.

 

Detecting the appropriate browser

 

<HTML>

<TITLE>Detecting User's Browser</TITLE>

<HEAD></HEAD>

<BODY BGCOLOR=ffffff>

<script Language="JavaScript">

if (navigator.appName == "Netscape"){

if (navigator.appVersion.substring(0, 3) == "3.0"){

if (navigator.appVersion.substring(3, 4) == "b"){

alert('You are using :' + navigator.appName + ' (' +

navigator.appCodeName + ') ' + navigator.appVersion +

'\nSorry! You are not using Netscape 3.0+');

history.back();

}

}

}

else {

alert('Sorry! You are not using Netscape 3.0+');

}

</SCRIPT>

</BODY>

</HTML>

 

Here we use the some of the properties of the Navigator object. First we find out if the browser is a Netscape browser. If so, we detect if the version is 3.0. If the version is a beta version, we display the whole browser information with its platform, and alert the user that he or she is not using a Netscape 3.0 browser.

 

Notice that before we closed the if statement, we used the history.back() statement. It is used so that when the user presses OK on the alert message box, the document automatically takes the user to the previous page. This is useful because sometimes if you run JavaScript 1.1 on Netscape browser 2.0 or earlier, the browser might crash; this will prevent users from crashing their browsers.

 

Here's another useful tip: You can send the user to a different page if the browser isn't Version 3.0. Instead of the history.back() statement, you need to type the following statement: window.location="myotherpage.html".

 

This script can also alert visitors that if they want to view this page, they need to acquire the appropriate browser.

 

Alert: The else statement is not effective unless you use a JavaScript-enabled browser besides Netscape, such as Microsoft's Explorer 3.0.

 

[code=auto:0]

 

This Continues

 

[code=auto:0]

Playing on-demand sound

A page with sound can be really nice! This not only gives users something to listen to when they are visiting, it also makes your site more multimedia savvy. With JavaScript, you can play sound when the document is loaded or exited, or when the user clicks a link. The following listing will show you how we can use an image as a link for playing an on-demand sound.

 

Playing on-demand sound

 

<HTML>

<HEAD>

<TITLE>Playing on-demand sound</TITLE>

<script LANGUAGE="JavaScript">

function play(){

window.location = "sample.au"

}

</SCRIPT>

</HEAD>

<body bgcolor=ffffff>

<h2>Playing on-demand sound:</h2>

<b>Please click on the image below</b><br>

<a href="/corner/ex5_:play()"><img src="sound.jpg" border=0></a>

</body>

</HTML>

 

First we had an image that calls the function play(). Notice the way we linked the function: java script:play(). This makes sure that this hyperlink is a JavaScript link that should call the function play(). The play function uses the location property of the document object and simply points to the sound file.

 

You should note that if you want to play other files such as a Shockwave file, all you need to do is replace the "sample.au" with the appropriate content - for example, "myShockwaveMovie.dcr" (assuming the requisite plug-in is resident.)

Scrolling Banner

The next example will show you how to create a scrolling banner that will display your text on the browser's status bar. This is a useful script as it can display a scrolling message you might want your visitors to see. A banner can grab your visitor's attention and thus is a great way to pass on your information.

 

The difference between this scrolling banner and others you have seen is that you can control the banner's speed and pause the scrolling. Let's see the script:

 

Scrolling banner

 

<HTML>

<HEAD>

<script LANGUAGE="JavaScript">

var b_speed=8; //defines banner speed

var banner_id=10;

var b_pause=0; //to pause the banner

var b_pos=0;

 

function stop() {

if(!b_pause) {

clearTimeout(banner_id);

b_pause=1;

}

else {

banner_main();

b_pause=0;

}

}

 

function banner_main() {

msg="W e l c o m e to J a v a S c r i pt!"

+" JavaScript can do some really"

+" Cool stuff. Check out [url="http://forums.xisto.com/no_longer_exists/

+" for more examples..."

 

var k=(40/msg.length)+1;

for(var j=0;j<=k;j++) msg+=" "+msg;

window.status=msg.substring(b_pos,b_pos+120);

if(b_pos++==msg.length){

b_pos=0;

}

 

banner_id=setTimeout("banner_main()",1000/b_speed);

}

 

</script>

</head>

 

<TITLE>Banner</TITLE>

</HEAD><BODY BGCOLOR="ffffff">

<H2> Example 5.8:</h2>

<P ALIGN=Center>

<FORM name="form1" action="">

<P ALIGN=Center>

<input type="button" value="Start"

onclick='{

clearTimeout(banner_id);

b_pos=0;

banner_main()

}'>

<input type="button" value="Slower" onclick='

{

if (b_speed<3){

alert("Does not get any slower!");

}

else b_speed=b_speed-1;

}'>

<input type="button" value="Faster" onclick='

{

if (b_speed>18){

alert("Does not get any faster!");

}

else b_speed=b_speed+2;

}'>

<input type="button" value="Pause" onclick='stop()'>

<input type="button" value="Reset" onclick='b_speed=8;'>

</FORM>

</BODY>

</HTML>

 

The script is simple, with 3 or 4 important parts. There are two functions: stop() and banner_main(). The stop() function is used to pause the scrolling text. First we check if the banner is paused, if it is not, we use the clearTimeout() method to pause the banner and make the b_pause variable true. When the user clicks on the Pause button, the function calls the banner_main() function. Lastly, we make the b_pause variable false.

 

In our banner_main() function, we first assign a value to the variable msg. Then, we take the length of msg, divide that by 40, and add one to the result. This value is assigned to k. Now a loop is used from j to k to add the blanks to the value of msg. Next, we display the banner in a window's status bar by taking the substring of msg from 0 to 120. Later we see if the b_pos becomes as long as the msg length and set the b_pos equal to zero again.

 

To make the banner go faster we just increase the value of b_speed, and to make the banner go slower we decrease the value of b_speed.

This Ends The Java Script Programing If U Understood Properly Then U Know Java Script Now Which Is Very useful For Webdesgining Thanx..

Well Ya Nice Work I Apricate Ur Hard Work Keep Rocking Like That And nice Sencerays nice font well every thing is nice thanx nice beauty

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So Play And Enjoy Thanx I Have Given Right Answers Without ur Help Thanx

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Well Yaa I Think This Is A Nice Way to Keep Up persons Knowledge About Programming Language.

Nice Forum Hope U Keep Up Have Fun Thanx

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And Very Simple And Help Full Keep Posting Like That Thanx

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Arrows.
Blackjack.
Bowling 1
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Mini Golf.
Table Tennis.
Puzzle Boat
POkemon
POkemon Online Simulator.
3D Wolf.
Delta Force.
Delta Force 2.
Delta Force 3 Demo.
Mario.
Dave.
Motocross Madness 2
Warrior Dragon.
Age Of Empire 2.
Rise Of Nation
Rise Of Nation Thrones And Patriot's.
Rise Of Legends.
Suzuki.
Mortal Combat 4.
Chess Master 10th Edition.
Road Rash.
Pool.
Pitfall.
Kaun Banega Corepati.
Commandos.
Games Club.
Hero's Of Might And Magic 5.
The Mummy.
True Crime.
Ultimate Spiderman.
Yu-Gi-Oh.
Duel Master.
Wrath Unleashed.
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Breath Of Fire 1
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Well I Dont Put >> --- XX For Credits I Put This For Quality Of Post Which Very Neccessary Bcause They Can Unterstand Only If The Quality of Post Is Good

Greatings to the cyber world.............

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

>>Beginners Guide In Speeding Up The Pc,Internet and Other stuff<<<<

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>By Heaven_master_ash<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

I spent months trying various but simple MANUAL ways to speed up the pc,IE and various other stuff and writing them down,i now pass them to you,any comments or questions please look me up at heaven_master_ash@yahoo.com and mail it to me.

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

1-First the Easy ways:

 

i- click on the desktop>>>Properties>>>Desktop>>>Customize Desktop>>>Uncheck RUN DESKTOP CLEANUP>>Ok

 

ii-Desktop>>>Properties>>>Power>>>Turn off monitor>>>NEVER(not recommended if you spend like 12 hours on the pc or more)

 

iii-Desktop>>>properties>>>Appearance>>>Effects>>>Uncheck USE THE FOLLOWING TRANSITIONS and SHOW SHADIWS UNDER MENUS>>>ok

 

iiii-Desktop>>>properties>>>Settings>>>Advanced>>>change the srr(screen refresh rate) to 75Hz if found>apply

 

iv-Go to internet explorer>>> Properties>>>Content>>>Auto complete>>>Uncheck all but FORMS>>>Apply

 

v-Internet Explorer>>>Properties>>>Connections>>>LAN Settings>>>Automatically detect settings>>ok

 

vi-Click Start>>>Control Panel>>>Printers and other hardwares>>>Mouse>>>Pointer>>>change SCHEME to 3D WHITE SYSTEM SCHEME, and uncheck the ENABLE POINTER SHADOW>>>Ok

 

vii-Control Panel>>>Sounds and audio devices>>>place volume icon in taskbar , then back to Performance and Maintenance>>>system>>>Advanced>>>settings(under Performance)>>>Adjust for best Perforance>>then check : SHOW WINDO CONTENTS WHILE DRAGGING and SMOOTH EDGESON SCREEN FONTS and USE COMMON TASKS IN FOLDER and USE DROP SHADOWS FOR ICON LABELS and USE VIRTUAL STYLES ON WINDOWS AND BUTTONS>>>APPLY>>>Ok.

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

2-Now to the more complex but effective ways:

 

viii-My computer>>>right click on C hd (the hd you have ure OS on)>>>properties>>>uncheck ALLOW INDEXING SERVICE TO INDEX THIS DISK FOR FAST SEARCHING>>>ignore and ok all msgs.

(THIS IS A VERY EFFECTIVE WAY TO SPEED UP THE HD)

Now back to Control panel>>>add/remove programs>>Add/remove windowscomponents>>>uncheck(if checked) INDEXING SERVICES>>>Next

 

ix-IMPORTANT: Now There are many unimportant services that the user does not need tp run the system.These services operate everytime you Boot and EVERY SINGLE ONE OF THOSE have an exploit that can viruses get in threw and leads to a slow Os etc...etc...so it is a good idea to close these holes(exploits) and stop these useless services to both increase security and speed.

 

Let's start doing that :

Start>>>Run>>>services.msc>>>ok

The Services window will open so now we close the dangerous holes and useless services:

The first service:ALERTER

right click then Properties>>>a window will appear>> next to STARTUP press the arrow and change the status to DISABLE.

DO THE SAME THING FOR THE FOLLOWING SERVICES:

 

AUTOMATC UPDATE

CLIPBOOK

COMPUTER BROWSER

Disributed Link Tracking Client

Error reporting service

Fast User Switching

Fax

Human Interface Access Devices

Indexing Service

IPSEC Services

Messenger

Net Logon

Netmeeting Remote Desktop Sharing

Network DDE

Network DDE DSDM

Portable Media Serial Number Service

Remote Desktop Help Session Manager

Remote Procedure Call Locator

Remote Registry

Routing & Remote Access

Server

SSDP Discovery Service

TCP/IP NetBIOS Helper

Telnet

Terminal Services

Universal Plug and Play Device Host

Upload Manager

Uninterruptible Power Supply

Windows Time

Wireless Zero ConfiguratioN

Workstation

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

 

3-Now WAYS TO INCREASE SEURITY AND SPEED UP THE INTERNET CONNECTION(kinda):

 

x-Double click on the time on the taskbar>>>Internet Time>>>Uncheck AUTOMATICALLY SYNCHRONIZE WITH AN INTERNET TIME SERVER.

 

xi-Right click Mycomputer>>>Properties>>>remote>>Uncheck ALLOW REMOTE ASSISTANCE INVITATION TO BE SENT FROM THIS COMPUTER.

 

xii-Now We speed up the internet more and more but from the REGISTERY:

start>>>run>>>regedit>>>HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE>>>Software>>>Microsoft/Windows>>>Current Version>>>Explorer>>>RemoteComputer>>>NameSpace

Look up for the key under the NAme space and Delete it:

D6277990-4C6A-11CF-8D87-00AA0060F5BF

 

xii-There are files that slow down the Pc very very much and they aren't important and the OS deletes them anyways every month or week or so.These files can be found in:

start>>>Run>>>Prefetch

Wipe all the files in it.

There is a way actually that prevents the existence of these files FROM THE FIRST PLACE but i DON't Reccomend this:

start>>>Run>>>regedit>>>HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Contro l\Session Manager\MemoryManagement\PrefetchParameters

Now change the PARAMETER value to:

0- to totally deny these files

1-to allow program files only

2-to allow Operatinf Files only

3-allow All files (best recommended and you can delete the files manually eachtime u remember!Smile

 

<><><><><><><><><>><><><><><><><><><><><><><><>

 

xiii-WAY TO SPPED UP WINDOWS SHUTDOWN:

start>>>run>>>regedit>>>HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE/SYSTEM/CurrentControlSet/Control >>>click control>>>Waittokillservicetimeout>>>right click waittokillservicetimeout>>>modify>>>choose value less than 2000(i put 0).

 

also go to HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Control Panel\Desktop and do the same thing to WAITTOKILLAPPTIMEOUT

 

xiv-DeLeTe ALL TEMP FILES COZ THEY ARE MAJOR SLOWDOWNERS!

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

xv-STOPPING PROGRAMS THAT OPEN WHEN THE OS BOOTS:

start>>>Run>>>msconfig>>>startup>>>uncheck all the programs u dont want them to boot with ure system.

 

xvi-IMPORTANT!!!(u'll thank me for this):

How to STOP the error Messages that show without reason at startup:

 

again start>>>run>>>regedit>>>HKEY_LOCAL MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Windows>>right click on the right and choose newdword ,name it NoPopupsOnBoot and give it a value of 1

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

xvii-WAY TO SPEED UP THE START MENU:

start>>>menu>>>regedit>>>HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Control Panel\Desktop>>>look for MENUSHOWDELAY and change its value from 400 to 0,reboot and u'll see the difference.

<><><><>><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><>

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

 

Hope u like and benefit from it all,QUESTIONS R WIDELY WELCOMED.

ReMeBeR:THE FiRsT STeP 2 KNoWLeDGe iS 2 KNoW HoW 2 SHaRe!Smile .

 

<><><><><><>Written by: Heaven_master_ash<><><><><<><>><><

<><><><><><><><><><Hook me up<><><<><><><><><><><><

<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><

 

 

Look forward to my next article: Advanced Html:Lesson1 :Working with multimedia.Peace Smile

 

X----------------------X-----------------------X------------------------X-------------------------X------------------X

 

If You Like My ths Post Do Rate This And Tell Your Thoughts About This Topic Thanx..

 

Help About C & C++ Programming Langauge

Prologue

I remember the time I started learning C. It was not too long ago. I liked programming, I always did, but I didn't know a lot of languages. The only languages I knew were useless, such as Visual Basic, PHP, ASP, and the basics of Javascript and VBScript.
So I decided to learn a real language: C. So I downloaded some tutorials and started reading. The well known "Hello, world!" program didn't cause any difficulties, nor did the few programs after it.

But then some new word showed up in the tutorial: "pointer". What was this horrible thing? I kept reading, but I just could not understand it. Maybe it was because my first language wasn't English, and the explenation was too hard? I didn't know - I still don't actually. Maybe my English was too bad back then?

Fortunately I didn't give up and kept on reading. I understood everything except for the pointer, and it was a huge pain in the **bottom**. Pointers are used very often in C. And it took a long time before I really understood how pointers worked and yet it was actually very easy... Once you understand it. So I will try to explain it in this tutorial. Basic knowledge of C is required.

POINTERS

What is a pointer?

A pointer is nothing else than an address of some place in the memory. A pointer can be defined like:
char* test;
In this case, test is a number, not a char as you might think. It's a number - an address to be exact. This address is an address of a place in the memory.
Let's describe the memory as a bunch of lines. Every line (-) is one byte. The "^" points to a line, thus to a byte. Now have a look at the following drawing:

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
^

The "^" points to a byte. It just shows you one place in the memory. It's a pointer(!) to a place in the memory.

So the pointer is an address. The address may or may not already point to a valid address in the memory right after you declared it, that depends on the way you declare it:
char* test;
will NOT point to a valid address in the memory. You will have to make it point somewhere before you read/write from/to it, or else a "Segmentation Fault" will occur.

char test[10];

will point to a valid address in the memory. You can read/write from/to the memory, but be careful: you can not read/write more than 10 characters (note the [10]?). If you DO read/write more than 10 characters, a "Segmentation Fault" will occur. Of course this 10 can be changed, which will allow more characters to be read/written.
What's the use of pointers?

There are many uses of pointers. A lot of functions need pointers to be passed. One example is printf if you want to print a string: it will need a pointer to this string. Another use is the ability to use arrays. You may not know what it means now, but I will cover that later. I do assume you know what printf does and how it works. If you do not, please read the printf manual.

Point the pointer

In case you define it the first way ("char* test"), it will not yet point to a valid address in the memory. You can make it point somewhere with malloc. Malloc will reserve the specified amount of bytes and return the memory address of this.

So malloc will create a place in the memory where you can read/write from/to without any problems. It will "allocate" some space in the memory (malloc = Memory ALLOCate). The malloc function will take the ammount of space to allocate as a parameter and return the pointer to the memory. It will return a "void *", but that doesn't matter since all pointers are actually handled exactly the same. Though, there are differences in how you can read/write from/to the memory, so always use the type you want to read or write.

An example:

char* test;
test = (char*)malloc(10);

This will allocate 10 bytes (10 bytes, not 10 characters! The size of a character is 1 byte most of the times, but it may differ.), and assign the location of the memory to test. Note that I use "(char*)" before malloc. This will not convert anything and this is not required. Though, if you don't do this your compiler will display a warning ("warning: assignment makes pointer from integer without a cast"), and it is best to have as little warnings in your program as possible.

[indent]Malloc or [#]

So there are two ways to create a pointer to the memory to write to:

char test[10];

or

char* test;test = (char*)malloc(10);

Of course the number 10 can be changed into any number above 0 (although there is a maximum, but you will probably never reach it).

There are two differences in these ways. The first difference is that from "char test[10];", the size can not be changed. It will keep a length of 10 characters but you can always re-allocate the space for a "char* test;". The second difference is that "char test[10];" will reserve 10 characters while malloc will reserve 10 bytes if you specify 10 as the parameter. On most machines a character will be 1 byte, but this is not on all machines. You can use "malloc(10 * sizeof(char));" to allocate 10 characters in stead of 10 bytes (sizeof(char) will return the size of one character, multiplied with the number of characters to allocate will be the memory in bytes to allocate). You should always do this so that your program will be portable to other computers.

Malloc may fail. This can for example happen when there wasn't enough memory to allocate the specified bytes. If this happens, malloc will return NULL. You should always check whether its NULL after you allocated some space. If you write to a NULL pointer, a "Segmentation Fault" will occur.

I will use "[#]" the rest of this tutorial, because that's easier. Note that the other method may be required sometimes, but since that not the case now and "[#]" will only be one line of code, I will use that method.

Free

If you have a pointer created by malloc which you will not use anymore, you should ALWAYS use free(pointer); (where pointer is the pointer). You must do this before you use malloc on the same pointer again, too. If you do not do this, your program will leak memory. This is bad if it happens once or twice, but can kill your program if it happens very often!

But there is another way to kill your program, which you should watch out for, too. You may not EVER free a pointer which either has not yet been allocated, which failed to be allocated or which has been defined with "[#]". If you do this, a "Segmentation Fault" will occur.
So to make sure you are not freeing a pointer that failed to be created, you should always add a check before you free it:

if(test != NULL)free(test);

But if you declared test with "char* test;", test will not be NULL. So if it is not allocated and it tries to free it, the program will crash. This is why you should alway declare pointers you will malloc later with "char* test = NULL;". That way the default will be NULL, and the above check will also prevent it from freeing unallocated parts of the memory.

One more tricky part: free will not make the pointer NULL again. So if it is possible it would free it more than once, always use the following check:

if(test != NULL){free(test);test = NULL;}

test will be set to NULL when freed, and will not be freed anymore until it has been re-allocated.
Access the memory one by one

You can access the memory on several ways. One way is to access it one by one. I can't say byte by byte, since it differs on how you declared it. For example, if you used a pointer to an integer, this will work integer by integer. If it's to a character it will work character by character.
For example, let's define it as a char:

char test[10] = "0123456789";

This will allocate the space for 10 characters (10 x sizeof(char) bytes), and put "0123456789" in the memory on that place. Test will point to the first character to this string: "0". Now lets say you have defined a character: "char test2;" and you want to put the second character of test in it. What could you do?

What we actually got is nothing else than an array of characters: 10 characters after each other. You can simply access these characters in the memory with "test[#];". Replace the "#" with the number of the character you need, minus one. In this case, "test[0]" equals "0". This way of accessing it will select a char from the memory, not a byte. So in this case, you can pick any number from 0 to 9, and test[#] (where # is your chosen number) will have your number stored as character. Make sure you do not pick a number below 0 or higher than 9, or else it will cause the program to crash with a "Segmentation Fault" or just return a character from another part of the memory.

So test[1] will be in the memory with the address test + 1 * sizeof(char). Test[#] will not return a pointer, but a char, but "test + 1 * sizeof(char)" is possible and will return a pointer. Of course, test[2] will be in the memory with the address test + 2 * sizeof(char), etc.
You can also get a character of a specified memory address by adding a "*" in front of it. For example, "char test2 = *test;" will put the character test points to in test2. Again, you can also use "char test2 = *(test + 1 * sizeof(char));", which will select the second character in the array.

So this means that

"test[0]" equals "*test","test[1]" equals "*(test + 1 * strlen(char));","test[2]" equals "*(test + 2 * strlen(char));",

and so on.

Here, too, you must pay attention: you may not read in a memory location you did not allocate. Otherwise the result will be a character of something different in the memory from or, again, cause a "Segmentation Fault".
Of course you can write to the memory the same way:

test[0] = 'a';

will put the character "a" in the memory ('' is for characters, "" is for pointers to strings), and

*test = 10;

will put a return character (\n, ascii code 10) in the memory test points to.

Value to pointer

Let's say you have a character and you would like to know where in the memory it is. It's very simple to do this: just put a "&" in front of the variable you want the pointer of, and it will return a pointer. So:

char* test;char test2 = '!'; //This character is somewhere in the memory... but Where?test = &test2; //Ah, there it is!

Now test contains the address of the memory where test2 is stored. This can be used on, for example, the following way:

char test[11] = "0123456789\0";//\0 Makes sure it ends with a 0-character. If not, the printf//function will just keep on reading until it sees a 0-char.//So it will display characters which should not be shown.//Or may cause a "Segmentation Fault"printf("%s\n", &test[1]);

The first thing to explain is the term a "0-character". It's a character with the ascii code 0. In a string, it identifies the end of the string. If this is read, the functions know what the end of the string is.
test[1] will select the second character. The & will make a pointer of it. So the pointer to the second character of "0123456789" will be passed, thus the memory address of the character '1' will be passed to printf. Printf will read the memory, and show the characters there. So it will show "123456789". If test[10] would not be 0, it would keep on reading memory outside test's allocated memory, and possible show characters that should not be shown, maybe even complete passwords if you're unlucky or it may crash with a "Segmentation Fault".
Copy functions

You can use the method described above to assign values to the memory manually. Of course, this is a lot of work for some tasks. For example, if you would want to put "test" in the memory, ending with a 0 character so that you can use it with printf(); later, you could use:

char test[5];test[0] = 't';test[1] = 'e';test[2] = 's';test[3] = 't';test[4] = 0;

Too much work. And you can't use

char test[10] = "0123456789";test = "9876543210";

either, because that would try to put the string "9876543210" somewhere in the memory, and try to put the pointer in test. Not the string itself into the memory where the pointer points to.
For this use some functions were developed. I won't cover all of them, but I will cover the ones you will probably use most:

- sprintf and snprintf
- strcpy and strncpy
- memcpy

Note that all those functions can cause so called "buffer overflows" these are exploits that can be used for causing the program to crash, or even become (both remote or local) root, or just get a remote shell. You should NEVER try to copy more characters to the destination than allocated for the destination! Check all the data you want to write before you actually write it!
sprintf and snprintf

I said earlier in this tutorial I assume you know how printf works. That's required to understand this function too: this is simply because the sprintf function is almost identical to the printf function. Everything works exactly the same, but it will require one more paramter: the first parameter has to be the pointer pointing to the place in the memory to write to. The output will unlike the printf function not be sent to the screen, but to the memory the pointer points to. An

example:

char test[11];sprintf(test, "%s", "0123456789");

will write "0123456789" to the memory where test points to. This string will be terminated with a 0-character so that you can pass it to functions like printf. Note you will have to spare one character for this 0-character too! But this is still unsafe.
For this matter, snprintf has been developed. This is almost identical to the sprintf function with one difference: it has one more parameter, inserted between the first and second parameter, which will be the MAXIMUM number of characters to write to the memory. This is including the 0-character, thus:

char test[10];snprintf(test, 10, "%s", "0123456789");

Will only print "012345678" to the memory, ended with a 0-character. Note that it will not only stop when the maximum number of characters has been reached, but also when a 0-character is seen. This is because the 10th character is the last character allowed to be written and has to be changed to a 0-character in order be allowed to be passed to functions such as printf, and a lot others. If the string to write is less than the number specified, the number is just ignored. This function is to prevent data from being written to memory where it may not be written.
Both functions will return the number of characters successfuly written, the 0-character not counted. For both functions the strings written to the memory will end with a 0-character.
strcpy and strncpy

Strcpy is even easier than sprintf. Strcpy requires two parameters, both pointers. It will read all data from the memory the second parameter points to and write this to the memory the first parameter points to. It will not stop before it reaches a 0-character (it WILL copy the 0-character too), so you should be 100% sure it ends with one! An example of this function:

char test[11];strcpy(test, "0123456789");

will copy "0123456789" to the memory test points to, including the terminating 0-character (which is added automatically, if you use "").
Strncpy will work exactly the same way, except that it allows a third parameter: the MAXIMUM number of characters to copy. It will stop when the 0-character is reached or if the maximum number of characters has been reached. This means it is possible it does not end with a 0-character.

For example:

char test[5];strncpy(test, "0123456789", 5);

will write "01234" to the memory test points to, but it will not be terminated with a 0-character, so you may NOT pass it to functions such as printf before you checked or added the 0-character. This function is to prevent data from being written to memory where it may not be written.
memcpy

Memcpy is another function to write something to the memory. It works the same as strncpy, except that it will not terminate after a 0-character. This is useful for things other than strings. For example if you have two variables with the same structure, and you want to copy them. The first parameter is the destination, the second the source and the third the number of bytes to write (so it's the same as strncpy).

An example:

struct sockaddr test;struct sockaddr test2;memcpy(&test, &test2, sizeof(test2));

This will copy test2 to the memory where test is located. Test will be exactly the same as test2 after this. Sizeof(test2) characters were copied, which is the complete size. So everything.

Compare functions

Now you may need a way to compare two memory locations. For exmaple, are two strings the same, or are two memory locations the same. For this you will need to know three more functions:
- strcmp and strncmp
- memcmp

strcmp and strncmp

Strcmp is the easiest function to compare. It compares two strings (both the parameters), and it will return 0 if the strings are the same. Both strings must be terminated with a 0-character.

An example:

char test[11] = "0123456789";char test2[11] = "9876543210";if(strcmp(test, test2) == 0)printf("The strings are the same (1)\n");strcpy(test2, "0123456789");if(strcmp(test, test2) == 0)printf("The strings are the same (2)\n");

This will only display the string "The strings are the same (2)\n". Thus only the second time there was a match.
Strncmp is almost identical, but it will take a third parameter: the number of characters to test. It will ignore all the characters behind this.

An example:

char test[11] = "0123456789";if(strncmp(test, "01234", 5) == 0)printf("The first 5 characters are equal (1)!\n");if(strncmp(test, "01234!", 6) == 0)printf("The first 6 characters are equal (2)!\n");

This will only display the string "The first 5 characters are equal (1)!\n". Thus only the first time there was a match.

memcmp

memcmp is identical to strncmp, except that it will not be terminated by the 0-character. This is useful to compare two non-strings, for example structures. Let's take the example from memcpy a bit further:

struct sockaddr test;struct sockaddr test2;memcpy(&test, &test2, sizeof(test2));if(memcmp(&test, &test2, sizeof(test2)) == 0)printf("test equals test2\n");

This equals both test's. Since they were just copied, they are identical.
Comments
This version of this textfile is released in astalavista.net and has been written under the name of my group, the Raiders of the Lost Circuit (RLC). You can contact me (Spoofed Existence) using u2u if you got any questions, comments, etc. You can also contact me with u2u if you would like to join the Raiders of the Lost Circuit. We do not yet have a website, but we are working on it.
The Raiders of the Lost Circuit is not a hacking group. It's a group of all kind of people: we have (and still need) authors, programmers, researchers, exploits finders and lots more. If you think you are good enough for any job, even when this job isn't mentioned here, u2u me and we will talk about it.
And please, DO comment. What isn't clear (enough)? What should be improved?

Hi

 

I have seen many articles on how to deface this website or that one... but never seen much on whats happens after web-sites are defaced. I am no admin but got to know a few things from here and there. Just thought of putting all those things together...

 

Let me put it down in the form of a small story.

 

Once upon a time a company by name Lazyadmin.ltd had hosted its website "Stupidsecurity.com" for their clients. It had a large number of visitors and also the company had a great reputaion. Now one fine day, one hacker/craker broke into their site and defaced the site. Their admin turned out to be my friend. He met me after two days of that incident and narrated me what all he had to face last two days and is still facing. He was really stressed out. The site was defaced by a hacker by nickname boss_dk.

 

I did a bit of research and inquired here and there and found out that he was Mr.Dino KUmar(so the nick boss_dk). He turned out to be my old school friend. I luckily had his cell number and quickly called him up.I asked him if he can meet me. He agreed. Accordingly we met and had the

following conversations.

 

####################Start######################

 

w0lf(myself): Hi buddy

 

boss_dk:Hi man wolfie..howz life..mine fine n roking n urs? speak speak speak...

 

w0lf:huh? allow me to speak...

 

boss_dk:okok

 

w0lf:I am fine. Leave aside all those things. I actually called you up for some serious discussions.

 

boss_dk:Yaa tell me man. go ahead , dont be shy...

 

w0lf:huh? Ok listen. Do you know hacking?

 

boss_dk:yaa. Its cool

 

w0lf:I know.Are you by nick boss_dk?

 

boss_dk:Yaa. cool nick na

 

w0lf:hmm. Heard about you. You defaced Stupidsecurity.com

 

boss_dk:yaa. I wanna be no.1

 

w0lf:ok fine. Do you know their admin was my friend...good friend.

 

boss_dk:ooh!!! Soory man. But i just defaced his index page.I didnt steal or alter anything. tell him to chillx

 

w0lf:Do you think he can do that? Are you sure?

 

boss_dk:Means?

 

w0lf:I will let you know.One customer notified the company about the defacement.My friend, server admin(can be a web master also) was notified about it.

 

boss_dk:ok

 

w0lf:His heart jumped out of his ribs. He quickly informed his manager.He feared his job the most as he was the person who will questionable. He was responsible for webserver security.He knew this was because of his weak password or unpatched/not upgraded box.

 

boss_dk:ok

 

w0lf:On hearing this, manager's heart jumped out of his ribs for he feared his job. He had to answer to top management.Oh hell!!!what to do? whats next??? He is puzzled as to whom should he contact first??? He knew his relations were quite nice with VP. He calls him and updates him the same.

 

boss_dk:hmmmm. next?

 

w0lf:On hearing it, VP's heart jumps out of his ribs.He creates a havoc and calls for Hr,and the Director of Engineering or some highly profeesional technical staff.They plan a meeting immediately and decide whether the site should be up or should be made offline. Simultaneously Vp or some other fellow called CEO and informed him.

 

boss_dk:oohh

 

w0lf:Next they decide whether they should contact Cypercops immediately? The answer was Yes.They wanted to punish the intruder. They dont want to let him roam free...

 

boss_dk:O man... Are they planning to hang me?

 

w0lf:Let me finsh boss_dk.

 

boss_dk:okok

 

w0lf:All this time my friend was however digging all his systems, log files and whatever he can to find how the intruder succeeded or what damage he has done to the system.

 

boss_dk:hey i told you right? I just replaced that index.html

 

w0lf:Admin found the same thing and reported it to the manager. But manager was not ready to take risk.He wanted admin to check every single system in the network and block any possible ways to intrude again.Admin had been give n just 1 hour.

 

boss_dk:Only 1 hr??? Oh God...

 

w0lf:Yaa. He had tremondous pressure to pull out. I would have fainted if i had to face same circumtances.

 

boss_dk:Same here

 

w0lf:He does a comprehensive audit. He tries to do it neatly and properly in an hour.He has to do it PERFECTLy. lawyers and Cybercops get there and gather aroung admin, Discuss with him what are the clues, where are the logs.. You were smart enough to delete much of the trace...

 

boss_dk:Yeah baby.. i rock

 

w0lf:I know.Even admin had to bang his head against the rock.

 

boss_dk:oops

 

w0lf:After 2 days of total pressure, the site is restored back with all latest patches.They had to spend around 1000 $ to fortify their site more. At the end of the day they now assure each other that chances of being intruded again are very less...(their belief...Even they are not sure, but just to satisfy themselves)

 

boss_dk:ooh christ!!! I have not though of all this stuffs before. Man i am sorry.

 

w0lf:Haha this is the simplest procedure, if they would have found trojan/backdoor then you can imagine the condition of the admin.

 

boss_dk:Poor fellow. Now i really pity him.

 

w0lf:So i request you not to deface any website for funsake.

 

boss_dk:But i want to be number one. What should...

 

w0lf:Ok listen .There are other ways round. You can inform the admin/webmaster about the bug. He will thank you for that. After he has patched that you just post it some-where to boast about yourself. If you yourself have found a bug/vulnerability, you can report it to respective vendors and only after it has been patched disclose it in some famous mailing list etc. The fame which you will earn that way will also earn respect for you.

 

boss_dk:Thanks w0lfie you really opened my eyes. You rock buddy!!!

 

w0lf:I know

 

 

####################Stop######################

 

x---------------------A piece of advice-----------------x

 

Ok guys... i hope i have explained it clearly. What i wanted is to make a few script kiddies out there (who have earned a bad name for HACKER community) realise that probabaly company is spending millons of dollars and significant time to face the consequences of this simple attack.

 

You are doing no great job nor any gal will offer to have sex with you for that. But just for fun... an admin and the whole of comapny had to ...... Just think about it.My friend boss_dk has now improved and i expect the same from other kiddies.

 

I know i have written it in a bit childish way...thats because this article is meant for childish people doing such childish act!!!

 

 

x---------------------------------------------------------x

 

Hacker Will Be Punished Sevierly If Caught And Will Be Jailled For More Then 7 Years Becarefull

 

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Have Fun Bye

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